Childhood Protection and Child Rights; Lex ferenda; Breaking the Cycle Essay

Youth Protection and Child Rights; Lex ferenda; Breaking the Cycle of Violence inside the Child Phd Thesis - Essay Example As indicated by the World Health Organization (WHO), there is nobody official meaning of psychological wellness. To characterize Mental Health academicians depend on different speculations from social contrasts, emotional appraisals, and contending professional.1 This examination venture has looked for its support in standards of youngster brain science. By coordinating and contrasting the meaning of a â€Å"child† in law and brain science, one understand the developing truth of an absence of comprehension in law-production, legal executive and legitimate professions as to ideas, for example, kid helplessness, kid needs, and youngster versatility. In solid words, what changes for a kid who has been survivor of sexual brutality? What changes for a kid who is working day and night in an industrial facility? What changes for a youngster who is living in the city? What changes for a kid captured? What changes for a kid thumped by police? All things considered, the as a matter of f irst importance change is at the degree of emotional well-being. The manner in which she thinks, the manner in which she feels. Psychological well-being of youngsters is a significant part of kid right examination talk. Through the understanding, one can guarantee the youngster can ‘bounce back’ and recoup from a troublesome circumstance. What is imperative to acknowledge is that the emotional well-being advancement managed in this examination is really an advancement and counteraction in the result of an extreme occurrence or procedure, in the child’s life. These are the advancement of a child’s unique needs, and the counteraction of long haul fierce effects on the general public. The later sections manage the responses and dangers of un-managed injury, and cultural advancement connected to the prosperity of its youngsters. The examination study doesn't as such separate between classes of kids. The classes introduced here are neither comprehensive nor selective. For the most part helpless kids fall into a significant number of the classifications. For example, road kids can likewise be youngster workers, and explicitly manhandled. My

John Lockes Social Contract Theory

John Lockes Social Contract Theory The understanding of the general public to give up its privileges halfway or totally to the decision government or authority is an implicit agreement. The implicit agreement is the premise of societys virtues today since it gives government the freedom to choose what is good and bad relying upon each societys socialization structure, all for the sake of the standard of law. The implicit agreement hypothesis has been in presence for an extremely lengthy timespan, directly from the times of Plato (380BC) to John Rawls of the twentieth century. The implicit understanding bears the duty of both resident and government and is acquainted with secure an effectively tranquil society, or to shape one. It is related with current political hypothesis. Romantics and progressive, for example, Thomas Hobbes, Jean Jacques-Rousseau and John Locke have impacted constitutions around the globe an extraordinary arrangement particularly the West with their hypotheses. The implicit agreement is commonly expected to give equity and security to residents inside its limits. The condition of nature is a spot imagined by a savant, before the presence of the implicit agreement. The implicit understanding is gone before after a thinker has given his perspective on the condition of nature. The condition of nature doesn't have any good or physical structures set up. It must be imagined. In the condition of nature, there are no laws set up and no human advancement. Man is either portrayed as one who lives in concordance with his kindred men or battles for his endurance. Dreamer scholars, for example, Immanuel Kant and Jean Jacques Rousseau contend that, since man is balanced, in his condition of nature there would be co-activity in presence and accordingly his implicit understanding must exemplify laws that are sane. Then again, pragmatist scholars, for example, Niccolo Machiavelli and Thomas Hobbes can't help contradicting the idealistic thought of people. They contend that individuals are egotistical and would advance their advantage first in quite a while; in this manner their condition of nature would be disorderly and confused. The overcomers of such a spot would be just the solid or quick ones, in this manner his implicit agreement ought to permit unreasonable choices to be taken by the head of state for more noteworthy's benefit of the individuals. The implicit understanding essentially infers that the individuals surrender a few rights to a legislature as well as other expert so as to acknowledge or mutually protect social request. John Locke, a liberal scholar of the eighteenth century and the writer of the renowned and persuasive book, The Second Treatise of Government spearheaded the requirement for the regard of human rights. Locke starts his hypothesis by envisioning a condition of nature that people live in before consenting to the implicit understanding. In Lockes condition of nature, there is opportunity, however not so much since he asserts that the law of nature overseeing this bequest is from God. Rights and freedoms are regarded in light of the fact that he sees people as balanced. In the occasion where individuals respond unreasonably to adverse human conduct, Locke recommends the requirement for an implicit agreement, an understanding between the individuals of the condition of nature to have a position that would guarantee equity and fairness. One may respond unreasonably when distributing a discipline to a guilty party; someone else may likewise intercede and rebuff the wrongdoer. To forestall a one-sided type of equity being completed, Locke recommends an understanding among the individuals to shape an administration that would make laws that would guarantee equivalent equity for all and security of rights found in the condition of nature. In the condition of nature there is no political expert in presence, be that as it may, virtues do exist. The Law of Nature, which is on Lockes see the premise of all profound quality, and given to us by God, orders that we not hurt others concerning their life, wellbeing, freedom, or assets (standard. 6). [i] Life, wellbeing and freedom are a portion of the essential rights that are found in the condition of nature. The implicit agreement which Locke proposes, must regard these essential human rights which are found in the condition of nature John Lockes State and Law of Nature A state likewise of correspondence, wherein all the intensity of locale is equal, nobody having more than another à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢ ¦should additionally be among each other, without subjection or coercion, except if the ruler and ace of all should, by any show announcement of his will, set one over another, and give on him, by an obvious and clear arrangement, an undoubted right to territory and sovereignty.â [ii]â - Second Treatise of Government, Locke To comprehend the condition of nature, society must be seen with no current position, administering ruler or government. It contains no houses, structures, farmlands, culture or social civilities. John Lockes condition of nature guarantees equity for all men. He accepts that we won't completely be free in the condition of nature since we will be limited by the laws of nature. The law of nature which forces each and reason, which is that being all equivalent and autonomous, nobody should hurt another in his life wellbeing, freedom or assets for men being all the workmanship of one supreme and vastly astute Maker. [iii] This law of nature empowers the keen that, since we are altogether Gods creation, naturally we are for the most part equivalent; hence we reserve no privilege to take to take anothers life or assets. In the condition of nature, when no keeps an eye on rights are being attacked then the law of nature is being watched. Be that as it may, the law of nature permits a guilty party to be rebuffed for the offense he submitted. Everybody limited by the laws of nature reserve the option to rebuff offenders of the law. This is on the grounds that the law guarantees uniformity and in this way it can't select one individual who might acquire a senior job to do equity. The issue with permitting everybody to be a killer of the law is that a one-sided sentence could be completed since feelings could come in the manner. John Locke recognizes that self esteem will make men inclined toward themselves and their companions which won't mirror a valid and just framework and sick nature and vengeance will convey them excessively far in rebuffing others and subsequently only confusion㠢â‚ ¬Ã¢ ¦ To take care of this issue, Locke proposes an implicit agreement. The Social Contract The implicit agreement he proposes is an understanding between the residents and the decision government. It is an answer for the issues of the condition of nature. The legislature in power must be worried about the prosperity of the resident. It must safeguard his privileges and rebuff the offenders of the law. Such an administration can be portrayed as a genuine government. An ill-conceived government would be the one that would neglect to secure the regular privileges of its residents and damage the privileges of its subjects. Locke expresses that when a common society is famously gone into, it can't turn into a tyranny since power must originate from above however authenticity must originate from below.â [iv]â This clarifies the motivation behind why Locke contends that a general public has the option to get rid of an administration that isn't complying with the rules that everyone must follow by being engaged with negative practices, for example, cheating, debasement, torment and nepotism. This gives the grounds to an authentic resistance. The administration can be expelled from power through the genuine procedures, for example, decisions. Lockes contentions for the implicit understanding and for the privilege of residents to rebel against their lord were immensely powerful on the vote based transformations that followed, particularly on Thomas Jefferson, and the authors of the United Statesâ [v]â look for additional on the inferred assent Defects of the Social Contract One of Lockes defects is his logical inconsistency of how precisely we are obliged to be a piece of the implicit understanding. He initially examines how the principal residents become a piece of the agreement by singular assent and how resulting ages become a piece of it by implied assent. It doesn't hold since then it would be unknowingly constrained unto the ensuing ages in the event that they are not asked their supposition. For a general public that should guarantee opportunity and correspondence, it is disregarding the privileges of its residents. Lockes see that perpetual citizenship relies entirely upon the people assent - and even express assent is both unhistorical and as opposed to all lawful convention as any educated current peruser will effectively perceive. [vi] This is the manner by which Frederick Pollock sees Lockes defect of the assent in his book. Locke doesn't discuss what the decision government must do if the residents consign their side of the agreement. It can't be relevant in the quest for satisfaction since it doesn't safeguard the minority or those living out of it. Ages implied assent: consenting to the obscure. Portray contract.;authority,rights of the people.what rights would they say they are surrendering? What will keep the agreement official? f

Making a Great Impression Part 1 Tips for Job and Scholarship Applications

Making a Great Impression Part 1 Tips for Job and Scholarship Applications Are you applying for a job or scholarship? The following list of pitfalls to avoid apply to *all* aspects of the process: resumes, cover letters, essays, and even your interview and thank you note. Here are The Essay Experts first 5 tips to help you distinguish yourself from the competition 6-10 coming soon! 1. Not answering the question If an employer or committee asks a question, be sure to answer it! They ask questions in part to hear your answers, and in part to make sure you can follow instructions and stay focused. Sometimes you can answer the question in a creative way, but make sure you have a professional review your answer (for interviews, practice this skill before the actual interview!). The perfect essay or interview response answers the question and shows off your key strengths and accomplishments. 2. Exceeding the word or page limit Your application can get thrown out if you do not comply with the word and page limits. Do not take that chance! There is no point in writing a brilliant essay if it never gets read. Would you rather write 511 words that never get read or 500 words that do? If you are having trouble staying within the word and page limits provided, work with an expert to help you concisely say everything you want to say. Practice concise verbal answers too before you get to your interview! 3. Pointing out why you do not qualify for the position Why would you highlight the reasons an employer would not want to hire you, or the reasons why someone else might be a better recipient of that scholarship? Many applicants make that very mistake. You can be sure that the people reading your application or sitting across from you in an interview already know what?s missing from your application ? they have seen your resume. If they are talking to you, it means they are willing to overlook some of your weak points. Showcase your strengths so that the committee trusts you to do the job even if you don?t meet every qualification on paper. 4. Bragging While you do not want to speak negatively about yourself, you also do not want to brag. A caveat: Many people think they are bragging and they are not; they are just stating their accomplishments. However, sometimes an essay or interview response can sound too self-congratulatory, even to someone wanting to hear about your best. The best policy is to provide facts that demonstrate something extraordinary about your accomplishments. You may want to hire someone to help you strike a balance between selling yourself and going overboard with self-praise. 5. Making grammatical and spelling errors Employers and committees want candidates to demonstrate attention to detail and the ability to communicate effectively. Grammatical and spelling errors demonstrate the lack of these abilities. Slow down in an interview so that you sound professional. And never submit a resume, essay or application without having an expert review it! Your investment will give you peace of mind and unprecedented results. Go to The Essay Experts Services and Rates page to make sure your writing and interviewing skills will make a good impression! Stay tuned for Making a Great Impression Part 2 More Tips for Effective Job and Scholarship Applications

Censorship - A Clash of Wills and Morals Essay - 4147 Words

Censorship - A Clash of Wills and Morals A list of the greatest literature of the English language could be compiled almost solely by using a chart of the works most often censored by schools and libraries. Some people believe that the books most frequently banned consist only of trashy paperbacks and frivolous â€Å"beach-reading.† However, usually in censorship cases, there is a clash of wills and morals between the teacher or librarian who finds a work worthy of students’ and community members’ time and the parent or citizen who sees little literary value in the work of choice. Seldom is the teacher or librarian alone in thinking a work justified for reflection. More often than not, the controversial work has†¦show more content†¦The reason a book is banned and the reason a book is lauded are inextricably linked. Controversial works are usually challenged on the basis of religious, sexual, political, and social issues. However, it is interesting to note that most works are actually censored not for the four reasons above, but for the ambiguous charge of â€Å"obscenity.† In Lee Burress’s chart listing the most common reasons for book censorship, the obscenity charge heads the list (Burress, 42). This charge usually remains relatively unexplained and is based on a few choice swear words taken from the challenged text. Censors usually cling to the obscenity charge because they believe it will gather public support as the basis for removing books†¦If there is substantial support for providing a wide range of materials then charges restricting the intellectual content of a book, its racial, religious, or political ideas, are less likely to receive much public support, and so the frequency of [those] charges diminishes. (Burress, 41-44) More often than not the charge of â€Å"obscenity† is merely a cover for other motives the censor may not feel comfortable making known. 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The Situation of Fdi in Vietnam Free Essays

The situation of FDI in Vietnam Inflow of FDI In 1987, Vietnam for the first time issued its ever first Law of FDI. Despite its relative short history, Vietnam has managed to attract a substantial amount of FDI. In relative term, Vietnam has been quite successful as compared with other countries, ranking the third recipient in the ASEAN [pic] Firgure 1: FDI Inflow into Vietnam during 2000-2010 (source GSO) Figure 1 shows the overall trend of FDI inflows in Vietnam for period 2000-2010. We will write a custom essay sample on The Situation of Fdi in Vietnam or any similar topic only for you Order Now Together with the number of investment projects, the amount of registered capital for licensed projects were stagnant in the fourth first years of 20th century which is generally referred to as the circumstance of World Crisis period in Vietnam. Beginning the year2004, the amount of registered capital had a sign of developing and the registered capital peaked in the 2008 and dropped sharply subsequently when many multinational companies did not want to share their limited little capital as well as to focus on capital to reform their domestic enterprises seriously impact on Vietnamese economy. This phenomenon is most apparent in late 2008 and early 2009. Also, due to the influence of the financial crisis and the contraction of the credit markets, transnational companies are affected more or less. In 2008, merger and acquisition plans of transnational companies has declined 35%, down sharply from 2008. According to recently released statistics report of the Foreign Investment Agency also said that the implementation of FDI capital in 2011 is estimated at $ 11 billion, with the implementation of 2010 and contributed 25. 9% of the total investment of the whole society. Do not complete the plan (the plan is $ 11. 5 billion). Although only 74% compared to 2010, but this figure is encouraging in the context of global economic and domestic difficulties. The amount of registered capital increased by $ 3. 1 billion, 1. 65 times the registered capital increase in 2010 (1. 89 billion USD). This shows that foreign investors remain positive reviews about business and investment environment in Vietnam. FDI made in 2011 is estimated at $ 11 billion, equivalent to 2010 and contributed 25. 9% of the total investment of the whole society. 2. 2 Sectoral distribution of FDI Table 1 | |Number of projects |Total registered capital( Mil|Implementation capital (Mil| | | |USD) |USD) | |Total |14998 |229913. 7 |88945. 5 | |1988 |37 |341. 7 | | |1989 |67 |525. | | |1990 |107 |735. 0 | | |1991 |152 |1291. 5 |328. 8 | |1992 |196 |2208. 5 |574. 9 | |1993 |274 |3037. 4 |1017. | |1994 |372 |4188. 4 |2040. 6 | |1995 |415 |6937. 2 |2556. 0 | |1996 |372 |10164. 1 |2714. 0 | |1997 |349 |5590. 7 |3115. 0 | |1998 |285 |5099. |2367. 4 | |1999 |327 |2565. 4 |2334. 9 | |2000 |391 |2838. 9 |2413. 5 | |2001 |555 |3142. 8 |2450. 5 | |2002 |808 |2998. 8 |2591. | |2003 |791 |3191. 2 |2650. 0 | |2004 |811 |4547. 6 |2852. 5 | |2005 |970 |6839. 8 |3308. 8 | |2006 |987 |12004. 0 |4100. 1 | |2007 |1544 |21347. |8030. 0 | |2008 |1557 |71726. 0 |11500. 0 | |2009 |1208 |23107. 3 |10000. 0 | |2010 |1237 |19886. 1 |11000. 0 | |Prel. 2011 |1186 |15598. 1 |11000. 0 | Table 2 | Number of | Total registered capital( | | |projects |Mil USD) | |TOTAL |13440 |199078. 9 | |Agriculture, forestry a nd fishing |495 |3264. 5 | |Mining and quarrying |71 |3015. | |Manufacturing |7661 |94675. 8 | |Electricity, gas, stream and air conditioning supply |72 |7391. 6 | |Water supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation |27 |2401. 9 | |activities | | | |Construction |852 |10324. | |Wholesale and retail trade; Repair of motor vehicles and |690 |2119. 1 | |motorcycles | | | |Transporation and storage |321 |3256. 8 | |Accommodation and food service activities |319 |10523. 3 | |Information and communication |736 |5709. | |Fiancial, banking and insurance activities |75 |1321. 6 | |Real estate activities |377 |48155. 9 | |Professional, scientific and technical activities |1162 |976. 1 | |Administrative and support service activities |107 |188. 0 | |Education and trainning |154 |359. | |Human health and social work activities |76 |1081. 9 | |Arts, entertainment and recreation |131 |3602. 6 | |Other activities |114 |711. 5 | | | Table1 shows the total of foreign direct investment in each year from 1988 to early 2011 by the number of projects, the amount of registered capital and the amount of implemented capital for period 1988-2011. Table 2 gives further detailed breakdown by subsectors and by time period. As can be seen in the Table 1, the majorities of FDI inflows in Vietnam are into manufacturing in terms of the number of project register capital and implemented capital as well. Table 1, with its detailed breakdown by smaller economic sectors and by time period provides a much richer picture of the trend of FDI into Vietnam. First, within the manufacturing, while during the early part of 1990s, the majority of FDI inflows were in oil and mining sector, by the end of the last century and early this century, light and heavy industry sectors dominate the field. Further, while FDI in agriculture were marginal in the 1990s, now this sector account for a significant share in the total FDI both in terms of the number of projects and registered/implemented capital In the service sector, while getting smaller in relative terms, the hotel and tourism sector still remain significant. An important point is that is that i n the early history of FDI, there was no FDI in many important service sectors such the construction of industrial zones, office, apartment, now these sectors start attracting significant portion of FDI inflows. 3. . Regional distribution of FDI [pic] According to official statistics by the Government Statistical Office (GSO) and the Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI), all sixty four provinces in Vietnam have received FDI. However, the distributions of FDI across provinces are very much uneven. As shown in Figure 3, the South East region (covering Ho Chi Minh city and its surrounding provinces account for the largest share of FDI. In the North, Hanoi and neighboring provinces account for the send largest share of FDI, leaving a very small proportion for other regions. This pattern is due to the fact that Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh city are the two main economic hubs of the country. The concentration of FDI in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh has been attributed to the increased cost of living and doing business in the two cities. This has led to a tendency that foreign investors are looking elsewhere for the investment location. In addition, the local governments in these provinces have now realized the importance of FDI and are actively attracting inward FDI in their respective regions/provinces. 2. 4 Country of origin Table 3 |Number of Projects | |Total registered | | | | | |capital ( Mil USD) | | |TOTAL |13440 | |199078. 9 | | |Of which | | | | | |Japan |1555 | |24381. | | |Korea Rep. of |2960 | |23695. 9 | | |Taiwan |2223 | |23638. 5 | | |Singapore |1008 | |22960. 2 | | |British Virgin Islands |503 | |15456. 0 | | |Hong Kong SAR (China) |658 | |11311. | | |Malaysia |398 | |11074. 7 | | |United States |609 | |10431. 6 | | |Cayman Islands |53 | |7501. 8 | | |T hailand |274 | |5853. 3 | | |Netherlands |160 | |5817. | | |Brunei |123 | |4844. 1 | | |Canada |114 | |4666. 2 | | |China, PR |833 | |4338. 4 | | |France |343 | |3020. 5 | | |Samoa |90 | |2989. | | |United Kingdom |152 | |2678. 2 | | |Cyprus |11 | |2357. 9 | | |Switzerland |87 | |1994. 6 | | |Luxembourg |22 | |1498. 8 | | |Australia |261 | |1316. | | |British West Indies |6 | |987. 0 | | |Fed. Russian |77 | |919. 1 | | |F. R Germany |177 | |900. 2 | | |Denmark |92 | |621. 5 | | |Finland |7 | |335. | | |The Philippines |61 | |302. 3 | | |India |61 | |233. 8 | | |Mauritius |34 | |229. 2 | | |Indonesia |30 | |219. 7 | | |Bermuda |5 | |211. | | |Italy |40 | |191. 9 | | |Slovakia |4 | |147. 9 | | |Cook Islands |3 | |142. 0 | | |United Arab Emirates |4 | |128. 4 | | |Chanel Islands |15 | |114. | | |Bahama |3 | |108. 6 | | |Belgium |40 | |106. 7 | | |Norway |28 | |102. 4 | | | Poland |9 | |98. 7 | | |New Zealand |18 | |76. | | |Sweden |28 | |71. 7 | | Table 3 documents the distribution of FDI by investors in Vietnam. The top ten foreign investors account for around 80 percent of the total investment in terms of the number of projects, the total investment capital and the registered capital. As can be seen in the Table, the inward FDI in Vietnam was and still is dominated by regional investors. Investors from the Asian region account for 67 percent. Although, the US is a late comer to Vietnam, the inward investment inflow has increased significantly since 2001 after the conclusion of the Bilateral Trade Agreement (Parker et al 2005). For the European investors as a whole, the number of projects account for only about 10 percent, the total investment capital 15 percent and the register capital 20 percent. References : http://www. gso. gov. vn/default_en. aspx? tabid=491 www. gso. gov. vn/default_en. aspx? tabid=491 https://www. google. com. vn/ How to cite The Situation of Fdi in Vietnam, Papers

Postmodernism in the Works of Ettore Sottsass

Modernism and Postmodernism are the most vivid movements in art and design of the 20th century.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Postmodernism in the Works of Ettore Sottsass specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Modernism with its concentration on the exact forms and lines appeared as the reaction to the traditional vision of art and design of the 19th century with references to interesting forms and luxurious objects. Postmodernism which developed in the post-war period rejected the main principles of Modernism and combined all the lines and forms to make the imaginative product of art and design. The era of Postmodernism in art and culture is associated with the middle years of the 20th century when the top point of its development in design is the 1980s. It is the period when the representatives of the Memphis Group in Italia shocked the public with their postmodern vision of objects and products. Ettore Sottsass i s discussed as the most prominent figure of the Memphis Group, and he designed the most provocative elements of furniture which are considered the vivid examples of the postmodern design now. The success of Ettore Sottsass’s Olivetti Valentine typewriter, Carlton bookcase, and Tahiti lamp can be explained with referring to the fact that developing his works, the designer followed the major principles of Postmodernism which attracted the public with their controversy and presented his specific vision of the space and role of objects in it.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Ettore Sottsass’s works and Postmodernism To analyze the peculiarities of Ettore Sottsass’s works effectively, it is necessary to pay attention to the major principles of Postmodernism in the sphere of design. It is also important to note that the discussion of Postmodernism should be realized with using the notions of ‘principle’ and ‘tendency’ rather than ‘rule’ or ‘norm’ because the ideology of Postmodernism rejects the idea of using any rules for creating the object of art and design. The objects of the postmodern design astonish the public with their expressive visual characteristics and with the combination of the lines, forms, and materials which are not traditionally used together. The ideologists of Postmodernism often state that this movement is based on the freedom of expression and evokes a lot of people’s emotions. Those combinations which can be perceived as absurd contribute to creating the specific harmony of Postmodernism. Thus, the forms and colors of the objects are rather radical and too vivid, and they can seem to be exaggerated by the designer or their contradiction can be used to accentuate the controversy of the designer’s idea. Moreover, the style of postmodern designers including the representatives of the Memphis Group is based on the principle to see something extremely unusual in ordinary things. Ettore Sottsass and the other Italian designers organized the Memphis Group in 1981. The members of the group specialized in working out the pieces of furniture, the glass products and ceramics with the help of urban technologies.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Postmodernism in the Works of Ettore Sottsass specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The main characteristic features of the objects were the vivid fluorescent colors and strange forms based on the asymmetrical lines. The works of the designers were considered quite original, and it was rather difficult to combine them with the traditional elements of the interior. The red plastic Olivetti Valentine typewriter, Carlton bookcase, and Tahiti lamp designed by Ettore Sottsass became the symbols of the postmodern era in design which are familiar for the public because of their recognizable bright colors and rather ‘ironic’ shapes. Furthermore, the material which was mainly used for producing the objects was bright plastic. The red plastic Olivetti Valentine typewriter In spite of the fact the red Olivetti typewriter was designed before organizing the Memphis Group in 1981, it is possible to say that this object significant for the development of the postmodernist movement (â€Å"Olivetti Valentine Typewriter†). The famous red plastic typewriter was released in 1969. Ettore Sottsass was working for Olivetti Company during several years in order to develop the models of the portative typewriters and the other office machines. The red plastic model which was presented on Valentine’s Day made the revolution in design of the everyday items for offices and personal use because of the unusual combination of the material, shape, and color. It was the real success due to the fact today the red Olivetti Va lentine typewriter is discussed as the design icon and the symbol of pop art as the reflection of the trends of Postmodernism. This typewriter is also successful because now it is one of the most famous models of typewriters in the world which are exhibited in museums all over the world.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Moreover, it is necessary to note that the Olivetti typewriter was also presented in grey and green colors, but the designer made the accents on the red color because of its extreme attractiveness for the public and symbolic meaning. The theoretical principles of Postmodernism are realized in developing the Olivetti typewriter in many aspects. From this point, it is necessary to concentrate on the unusualness of the idea to design the special typewriter for Valentine’s Day with using the red color as the symbol of the day for realizing the idea. The technical characteristics and features of the typewriter are also significant to be discussed with references to the concepts of Postmodernism. The red Olivetti Valentine typewriter is not as powerful as the other models of the Olivetti typewriters, but it is ease in use and light because of being made from plastic. A lot of postmodern designers used such urban materials as plastic to create the definite items in order to accentua te the shape, surface, and colors of the object in their opposition to the everyday ‘grey’ reality. The main postmodern ideas which are manifested in the red Olivetti Valentine typewriter are vivid and intensive color and lightness which contradicts with the complexity of the shape (â€Å"Olivetti Valentine Typewriter†). Ettore Sottsass’s Carlton bookcase The Carlton bookcase was presented in 1981, and it became the sensation because of the traditional public’s vision of bookcases (â€Å"Carlton Bookcase†). This construction seemed to be rather unusual and irrelevant, and irrational with references to the design of bookcases. However, rationality is not the principle of Postmodernism that is why the Carlton bookcase became the famous item of the furniture and the most extraordinary bookcase in the history of design which is now the trigger for the collectors’ pride. Working out the Carlton bookcase, Ettore Sottsass achieved his aim and presented the element of the furniture which followed all the ideas of the postmodernist culture and was rather cheap because of the peculiarities of its production. Nevertheless, today it is one of the most famous and expensive examples of the postmodern art and design. The postmodern design is based on the idea of paradoxes where the things which cannot be combined in usual circumstances are combined because of the designer’s will. Moreover, the accents are made on the usual functions of the unusual in their shapes and colors things. Ettore Sottsass was also good in combining the contrasting elements while creating a new object. Thus, the Carlton bookcase is produced with the help of rather cheap plastic the usage of which meets the requirements of Postmodernism to concentrate on the elements of urbanism even in using such urban materials as plastic laminate, acrylic, and aluminum. The gleaming surfaces of these materials reflect the light and produce the necessary effect for creating the atmosphere of the postmodern world. The elements of the construction which should be perceived as the Carlton bookcase are playful, and this effect makes the bookcase not the item of the furniture, but the real object of the postmodern art and design (â€Å"Carlton Bookcase†). It is rather difficult to consider the Carlton bookcase as a case or a shelf which can be used for placing books or the other functions because it is an independent art object which attracts the public’s attention with vivid intensive colors which are not combined with each other, but create the specific effect of dividing the space of the bookshelf. Moreover, the platform of the bookcase is spotted, and its color creates the contrast with the basic colors of the bookcase. This contrast also accentuates the ideas of Postmodernism where contrasts are perceived as the origin for creating something new and original. The banality of the basic forms and lines of the Carlton bookcase i s in opposition with the general presentation of the object as the whole which is rather impressive and colorful. The Tahiti lamp Ettore Sottsass’s Tahiti lamp is often discussed as the designer’s most eccentric work because of its style and combination of materials (â€Å"Tahiti Lamp†). The success of this lamp is supported by the detail that in spite of the fact the lamp was firstly produced in 1981, today it is one of the most recognizable desk lamps in the world. The shape of the lamp is rather ordinary, but the idea is fabulous because with using the imagination, the audience states that this desk lamp resembles the exotic bird. It is possible to determine the details of the work which are the long neck of the bright yellow color, the pink head, and the red beak. The metal brown detail can symbolize the wings of the tropical bird (â€Å"Tahiti Lamp†). It is important to note that the success of all Ettore Sottsass’s can be explained by the act ive usage of bright colors and especially red tones which attract the public’s attention to the work, and they are associated with some inclination. The Tahiti lamp can be discussed as the successful example of the postmodern design because its aesthetic was reflected in many items created by the other designers who were inspired by the provocative and astonishing works of Ettore Sottsass. The theoretical ideas of Postmodernism are realized in producing the Tahiti lamp with references to using the combination of different materials which are wood, metal, and plastic laminate. Ettore Sottsass follows his style and the bright colors of the item’s details are mixed with the speckled laminate base of the desk lamp. This detail became one of the characteristic features of the designer’s style. In spite of the bold and random shapes of the lamp, it draws the attention of the audience, and it is discussed as the remarkable object of art and design. The representatives of the Memphis Group made the accents on combining the extremely vivid colors with the ornamented surfaces which seemed to emphasize the texture of the material visually, but the designers used the urban materials with the luminous surfaces. The play of contrasts is one of the main distinctive features of the postmodernist movement which ideas were followed by Ettore Sottsass. The designer’s Tahiti lamp is developed for the active use personally and in offices, but it cannot be perceived just as an item on the desk because of the complexity of its design and the status of the ‘classical’ Postmodernism. Ettore Sottsass organized the group of the Italian designers in 1981, and this period was significant for the development of the ideas of Postmodernism in art and design. The success of the Memphis Group’s representatives is based on the fact that they originally started producing the items and elements of furniture which depended on the combination of such different materials as plastic, wood, and metal, the combination of vivid colors, and the combination of functions. The designers of the Memphis Group did not only work out the elements of furniture but also experimented with glass, ceramics, and lightning in order to provide the interesting and amazing visual effects with their products. Thus, Ettore Sottsass and the other designers from the Memphis Group did not only follow the ideas of Postmodernism in their work but also manifested these principles by themselves with creating the vivid world of paradoxes. Some critics can state that the works of Ettore Sottsass are bold and rather absurd, but this thrilling freedom in representing the objects is often discussed as the characteristic feature of the postmodernist movement. That is why, the figure of Ettore Sottsass can be referred to as prominent in the sphere of the postmodern design because all his works are successful, and his style has a lot of followers. Works Cited â€Å"Ca rlton Bookcase†. n.d. JPEG file. 30 July 2012.https://www.nova68.com/Merchant2/graphics/00000001/carlton.jpg. â€Å"Olivetti Valentine Typewriter†. n.d. JPEG file. 30 July 2012. http://66.media.tumblr.com/tumblr_lik118tirl1qee674o1_500.jpg. â€Å"Tahiti Lamp†. n.d. JPEG file. 30 July 2012. Web. This essay on Postmodernism in the Works of Ettore Sottsass was written and submitted by user Krystal Park to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

History and Evolution of Digital Imaging Technology in Health Care Essays

History and Evolution of Digital Imaging Technology in Health Care Essays History and Evolution of Digital Imaging Technology in Health Care Paper History and Evolution of Digital Imaging Technology in Health Care Paper Digital imaging technology plays a major role in contemporary health care, both as a tool in primary diagnosis and as a guide for surgical and therapeutic procedures. Besides gains over analog techniques concerning the image acquisition phase, such as possibility of dose reduction with no over- or under-exposure problems, the main motivation behind digital imaging is to exploit the advantages of digital storage and communication technology. Digital data can be easily archived, stored and retrieved quickly and reliably, used in more than one location at a time, do not suffer from aging and moreover are suited to image post-processing operations. One of the most important innovations not only in digital imaging technology, but in the medicine field as well, is the X-ray technology. X-ray imaging was the first diagnostic imaging technology, and scholars claim that X-ray technology was invented accidentally in 1895. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen was a professor of physics at the University of Wurzberg in Germany. He was doing experiments with a cathode ray tube when he noticed that a fluorescent screen on the other side of the room was glowing (Green and Bowie, 2004). Because Roentgen knew that the cathode rays could travel only a short distance outside the cathode tube in the air, he knew he was observing a new phenomenon, an unknown ray, which he identified as an â€Å"x† ray, noting the unknown in mathematics. This accidental discovery by Roentgen has impacted most human beings in the course of their lives. For the health care sector, this discovery has led to more effective diagnostics, X-ray technology gave physicians a powerful too, that for the first time, permitted accurate diagnosis of a wide variety of diseases and injuries. X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation capable of penetrating solids. The penetration capability is higher in soft tissue than in hard and this difference can be registered on photographic film. This basic method of X-ray was quite sufficient for the examination of broken bones or punctured lungs, but the use of X-ray as a diagnostic instrument was increased by replacing the photographic film with a light sensitive electronic device combined with a capability for amplifying the signals. Initially, x-rays were used to diagnose bone fractures and dislocations, and in the process, x-ray machines became commonplace in most urban hospitals. Separate departments of radiology were established, and their influence spread to other departments throughout the hospital. By the 1930s, x-ray visualization of practically all organ systems of the body had been made possible through the use of barium salts and a wide variety of radiopaque materials (Green and Bowie, 2004). Through this development, it became possible to convert the X-ray beam to analog electronic signals, which could be presented on a television screen. In many respects the technology of image amplifying resembled television technology. By employing electronics it became possible to decrease the energy in the X-ray beam and thus to reduce the exposure to radiation. The shift to electronic technology increased the possibilities for discriminating between different levels of penetration and it also made possible to examine moving parts. The energy required by the electromagnetic radiation was also reduced by the development of new, more light-sensitive photographic film. Issues in Information Technology for Health Care In the pre-information technology, the management of patient records in health care organizations was based largely on manual file processing systems. Over time, these practices became standardized in the form of patient registers, medical service claims, work orders, patient billing files, and books of accounts. The manual system required health record technicians and specialists who were well trained in maintaining paper-based records, while others (e.g., physicians and nurses) delivered the services. The health manager’s role was simply to enforce documentation to conform to evolving standards, such as acceptable data coding, accounting principles, and book practices. In effect, the manual system of documentation dictated the traditional structure of the health care organization. Patient records are maintained by the records department of a health care institution, and the quality of a patient record depends largely on the individuals making record entries. All healthcare practitioners and others who enter information into patient records must understand the importance of creating complete and accurate records, as well as the legal and medical implications of failing to do so. The increased emphasis on fraud and abuse prevention in the healthcare industry has further highlighted the importance of proper medical records. Today, concern about privacy and confidentiality is increasing. To some degree, this concern is fueled by the growth of electronic medical records and databases that allow the exchange of information to more people, at great distances, with little effort.

How To Write Newspaper Editorial Essays

How To Write Newspaper Editorial Essays A guide to writing a persuasive Newspaper Editorial Essay Editorial Essay Definition To understand and personally define an editorial, you should first try to define the word â€Å"editorial.† It is a newspaper article that covers the diverse concepts of the author. The author may choose to write about any topic, but it should focus on social issues concerning the subject matter. Each point expressed should be backed up with reliable support evidence or facts to give meaning to your work. Detailed research should be done to identify a suitable topic for discussion. An editorial essay should highlight and discuss the problem identified, and at the end offer reliable solutions. For example, if you as the author plan to address issues that are related to the mentally handicapped population, you should give detailed feedback about ways to tackle such an issue for a suitable solution. You should develop a message that addresses those affected with this issue, with part of the message sent to the healthcare providers on how to handle the situation. A newspaper editorial essay also addresses the ruling government on the issue at hand and the need for them to take necessary actions. Writing an editorial essay is similar to writing a research or a normal essay paper. If you know this, then writing your piece will be easy and the work with come out interesting to the reader in the long run. Ways of writing Different Editorial Essays Editorial essays are quite different from other types of essays. They are clustered according to the purpose they serve, unlike other essays where they are categorized according to their nature. With the above information, it’s safe to say that there is no single way of answering what an editorial essay is, without gaining knowledge of all the types of editorial essays. There are several ways of writing your essay. You could: Define/Expound/Interpret the Subject While writing your newspaper article, highlight how it addresses a specific subject. For instance, as an editor of a fashion companys magazine, you could address the different fashion trends on the rise to your readers. Criticize the Problem Critical thinking is needed by all writers to come up with a meaningful and interesting piece which addresses a vital issue. Bear in mind that an excellent editorial essay provides a critique on cases in question which provide solutions to existing problems. This craft is intended to make the reader identify the problem and not just the solutions offered. Use the Central Argument Focus of the Editorial to Convince your Audience You should inspire your readers to implement solutions by getting involved in the action from the introduction of your essay. While editorial essays only offer critique, persuasive papers handle all the suggested solutions without paying attention or providing information about the problem. Compliment Editorials relating to this theme focus on praising and admiring the works of organizations or people involved in a beneficial activity to society. While writing these types of essays, remember to place your focus on highlighting the positive outcome and appreciation of the subjects involved. If by now you are still not fully satisfied with the information given about editorial essays, no need to worry. Below I have introduced and explained other ways that can help you to craft a first-class editorial essay. More Ways to Ensure You Always Write a Persuasive and Attractive Editorial Essay Social media is the reason for the fierce writing we all experience in this time and age. For that reason, many people cannot craft a creative piece for a persuasive newspaper editorial. However, this should not be a problem as I have provided more vital tips and advice on how to be a professional writer of an editorial essay. Look for controversial problems: -the use of this theme provides a debatable discussion which will engage your readers. Since the use of this theme provides room for research, ask your audience questions as you gain more perspective of the subject in question. Making the right decision is important in writing a persuasive editorial essay: -the author can only support one side of a controversial paper. Before you start writing one, choose a side you feel best fit for you and you can back up with your experience and knowledge about it. Read a famous newspaper from your state: -reading this type of newspapers is helpful in many ways. They contain the relevant topics that need to be addressed while providing facts and solutions to the issues addressed. As they lay down their opinion, they leave the final judgment in the hands of public opinion. There are many ways to explain solutions in an editorial essay: -it is important for you to provide your audience with multiple solutions for them to make their own preferred individual choices. An inspirational excerpt by Minyvonne Burke from the United States’ Daily News says that: For an argument to make sense, make sure you talk about a couple of analogies. You are entitled to choose diverse social, cultural and political analogies as many people place trust in such areas. For instance, your research problem could be about the rising suspicion of the integrity of the several mobile spying applications in the market. Burke adds that search for relating issues in other technologically advanced countries whose family adopt this type of security to ensure the safety of their families. When it comes to writing an editorial, youre searching for solutions as you realize what other places did to resolve their issues. Steps of Writing a Newspaper Editorial There are several features for writing an editorial essay you will require as an editor to know and have them at the back of your mind. An impressing and engaging introduction, which will be accompanied by the body paragraphs and a compelling solution. You will realize that the structure is similar to many other essay types. Your interpretation of the issue-at-hand should make sense, through the use of factual or statistical evidence. At this point, have in mind that the complex issues should get more attention. Find the most effective news angle and use it appropriately. You need to know that the arguments brought forward by the opposing group are totally impartial and objective. While you write an editorial essay, make sure that you put across your different perspectives on the topic of discussion and do it in the most formal language. Utilize professionalism and criticism while crafting solutions. Don’t forget to put down a summary and a persuasive call for action. Ensure that you read the instructor’s guidelines before you start writing your persuasive essay. Consider factors that you need to develop your work such as the content, formatting and the number of words you are limited to. Topics for Editorial Essays Below are some of the best essay subjects you can use to create your own. Additionally, you will find appealing research issues and their respective solutions. For Charter Institutions, driving to the right decision is paramount For example: Public charter schools are associated with the public schooling program, which sticks to the required standards of learning. These types of institutions should demonstrate high levels of efficiency in all their adopted teaching methods. Any school which does not stick to these aspects should be closed if they do not uphold the required standards. The teachers have the mandate to educated heir students according to the standards set by the United States of America learning system.† Reality alternation and development by reality television programs Example: Reality shows aired on television mislead people into losing touch with the reality. Most of the directors try to convince the audience that the problems faced by their characters are the same we face in our day to day lives. They even try to convince the viewers that the consequences face by their characters is far more adverse than those faced in reality. Research conducted by Michigan State University by Dr. Gibson states that long term viewing of such programs brings about specific challenges. One of the challenges is heightened levels of aggression within the people living in the United States. The viewer rating of such programs should be placed at an age that will prevent the adolescent age group from viewing them. Other topic designs include: Advantages of higher education in the United States. Understanding the reasons and consequences of the Subprime crisis. Is legalization of marijuana a good move for its soothing effects, or destructive to the brain What challenges are likely to be faced with the banning of cigarettes A recap of the NBA season: Primary goals, training, prospect, prediction, best-performing players, debate and outcomes. Facts proving that gambling is illegal The best treatment available for diabetes Why is the death penalty legal in my country? More example samples of persuasive editorial essay topics can be found in the academic writing websites. To create an editorial essay that is captivating and has a logical flow of ideas, you need to adopt a structure that will formulate the backbone of your work. An Approach You Should Use in Writing a Persuasive Editorial Essay Identify and Pick the Preferred Topic Go ahead and select a debatable social issue and address it from all possible perspectives. Always remember to address a social issue that your target audience will be willing to read through to the end. Brainstorm on the ideas you have and choose one specific topic you are familiar with and can tackle with creativity and accuracy. Offering Your Opinion You should be aware that writing an editorial is the same as crafting an argumentative essay. At this point select a debatable, contradictive, and recently discoursed issue, and highlight your stance about it using valid evidence. An excellent tutorial should have both the positive and negative aspects concerning the topic of discussion. As you highlight your stand on the mater, remember not to pay attention to only one side. Looking for professional and editorial services are acceptable in instances you experience difficulty in handling the topic of discussion and writing the essay. Putting Down the Outline Having a framework for your editorial essay is vital in ensuring your work is well arranged, with the existence of a logical flow of ideas to make the essay legible and with high levels of professionalism. It is crucial because it helps you not to go off topic and keep to the subject of discussion when as new ideas pop up in the writing process. Your concepts will be well organized and structured to perfection. Composing the Final Piece of Editorial First, come up with an argument that is related to your selected topic and craft a headline that will attract the attention of your readers and impress them to read it some more. For instance, including an exclamation mark is a sure way for compelling your readers to look through your work. Use of rhetorical questions is also a way that will engage the reader. For each argument presented, make sure that you support them with valid resources, factual data, and examples. An effective way to achieve this is by highlighting the positive and negative aspects of issues addressed. Here are some extra pointers to help you in your creation of a persuasive editorial essay: Assimilating facts and figures from reliable online resources or those that are available in the library can be of great help. The resources will be of help in the explanation of your argument to make it credible and concrete. The most interesting evidence should be the last to be discussed. By doing this, you can keep your reader hooked to the essay and willing to read it all through. Don’t be too passive in the ideas that are not major. Engage your readers and address each point of view clearly and with necessary support offered to make sense out of it.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Conclusion or Relatable Solutions The edited piece of your work should have a concrete solution that is founded on constructive criticism. You should still remember you have two perspectives about your issue of concern. For example, if youre covering the governments effort to reduce the use of tobacco by applying regulations and rules to govern its use, identify and discuss why this strategy is effective and vital as compared to any other. Also, remember to propose any alternative regulations that can be effective in achieving the desired goal.

Computer Incident Response Teams Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Computer Incident Response Teams - Essay Example Not only these companies would suffer from information damage, but also their clientele and reputation will nosedive in the industry. Computer Incident Response Teams (short-form 'CIRT') are special teams formed for the purpose of minimizing and controlling the impact of a security breach or other computer related emergency in the company (Brussin, Cobb, & Miora, 2003). CIRT is a also known as CERT (Computer Emergency Response Teams) and CSIRT (Computer Security Incident Response Teams) in some companies, however, they all attempt to provide security to the computer systems. It depends on the company policy as well as the riskiness of information leakage or damage. In companies who don't heavily rely on computer systems, a CIRT would not be of much use. However, now with most organizations keeping important information on computer systems, the need for having a CIRT is increasingly getting popular. With the increasing number of viruses, spywares, backdoors in the systems being detected, a CIRT is a necessity for an organization keeping competitive information on the computers. Like in all business strategies before implementing them a plan needs to be created that would guide the formation of a CIRT. This plan includes all the details about the CIRT and all the information that the security team would need to know. Furthermore, this plan should be feasible in all ways and must provide a competitive business advantage. The details of the plan are given below. (RHE, 2004) 4.1 Make a Policy First of all, a policy regarding the CIRT should be created. This would have standards, rules ad regulations and instructions as to what is to be done when the security is breached. This policy document should be given to all members of the company and must be followed exactly as mentioned in the policy. (Lucas & Moeller, 2003) 4.2 Form the Team Forming the Computer Incident Response Team is the most important part in this plan. Usually the team is formed on a voluntary basis. However there are certain characteristics that need to be there in a CIRT. First of all the members of the team must be extremely responsible. Since action is required to contain the emergency, the team members should also be quick to react. Another quality that the team should have is that its members must be loyal to the company and should be heroes in their own sense as their job is to save the company from a disaster. Only trustworthy people should be made a part of this team. (RHE, 2004) After these characteristics, the team should have technical expertise to understand and resolve the situation. The team usually comprises of system and network administrators as well as information security experts. The system administrators oversee the correct response to the threat and supply the required knowledge about system resources. The network administrators are responsible for routing the network traffic though other points while closing all activity in those routes where the security has been breached. Information security officers diagnose and analyze the problem and detect the point of intrusion to try to solve it. (RHE, 2004) The team should be kept in close coordination with each of its members at all times so that in case of an emergency all members would get notified immediately. It is ideal to keep

CPA or a Contract Specialist Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CPA or a Contract Specialist - Assignment Example There are two occupational areas I would like to pursue, and these are: to be a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) or a Contract Specialist for the government. Let me tackle each profession separately so I can present them individually and in greater detail. I’d like to be a CPA because the demand for this type of job has not diminished in the last 5 to 10 years. I also find this profession challenging and very interesting, and this career also offers a lot of possible options on the lateral level, and as you go up the occupational ladder.The educational requirements to be a CPA varies dependent on the State you are applying to. For some, a baccalaureate degree in Accounting would suffice. However, in others, additional Accounting courses in the graduate level would have to be taken and some other exams have to be passed. Still others require a Master’s Degree in Accounting or Business Administration.. Accountants deal with numbers a lot. Every company is usually depende nt on the accounting department for their financial statements, tax computations, salaries and wages among other things. CPAs are usually hired by private companies as full-time or part-time consultant, or are employed full-time in Accounting and Auditing Firms. From this end, accountants make great use of their time and talent in assisting individuals, corporations, government and private corporations in trying to make sense of all the figures which affect the company in more ways than one. Consequently, the ever-increasing requirement for CPAs is further intensified.

The conceptual framework of feminism

The conceptual framework of feminism The conceptual framework of feminism, as a reactionary ideology, basically consists of power, woman, rights, and equality. The same can be said of African feminism, which has on its priority list such goals as self-determination, which have economic overtones sewn on a materialistic metaphysic. African womanism, despite its pretensions to seeking co-operation or its advocacy for interdependency between men and women, uses a model of conscientisation of women that is foreign to Africa, and runs the risks of obscurantism, vulgarism, inauthenticity, and irrelevance. To put it cryptically, African womanism cant want and cant not want men at the same time. Although gender has made tremendous strides in conscientising women about their plight vis-Ã  -vis male-dominance, its future in Africa demands that it re-position itself appropriately. At least it must re-think three theories, that is, the labour theory, economic theory, and social theory. Africas contemporary socio-political scene depicts theoretical and practical confusion of gender with feminism or, for that matter, gender with broad emancipatory movements, such as African womanism, which nonetheless use gender theory as an intellectual tool for critical analysis for the supposedly discriminatory social, religious and political organisational structures. Feminist thinkers loathe these structures because they see in them deliberate mechanisms for oppressing or marginalising women. This oppression of women characterises the present economic inegalitarianism in a male-dominated status quo. Consequently, it is argued that these male-founded and male-dominated structures can only be changed so as to render them balanced or equitable if and only if revolutionary measures are employed. The usual elements of such arguers form a class of people called feminist ideologues. Feminist ideologues are those people, male and female, minority or majority in one country, who share th e ideas or beliefs or attitudes of male-dominance over women. They tend to look at society in one way; they are certainly unhappy, dissatisfied and critical of what they see around them as compared to what they would like to see. The rational justification of their discontent and critical attitude is quite another thing. Insofar as feminism comprises people, who share one set of ideas or Where is the Foundation of African Gender? beliefs or attitudes as a group or community and who are (radically) organised, feminism is an ideology,1 which is posited to displace the prevailing male-dominated ideology. It is the core of an ideology or the ideological core, which is the most difficult part to change because it is the worldview of the people. The ideological core consists of the core ideas, core beliefs, or core attitudes of a people. By implication, if the core ideas, beliefs, or attitudes are purged out then the peoples practical reality is annihilated. The revolutionary spirit is germane to any feminist ideologue because he or she believes that lasting and effective change must be moral and intellectual. These detested moral and intellectual values are in-built in society so that their removal or reduction calls for a drastic revolutionary overhaul of the whole social fabric. This drastic revolutionary overhaul of society must be no less than a critique of the prevailing ideology because it purports to subjec t to intellectual scrutiny, and eventually refute or reject prevailing ideas, beliefs, or attitudes, which are rationally unjustified or prejudicial to the position of women in society. And then feminist ideology purports to create its own better ideas, beliefs, or attitudes. In other words, feminist ideology creates its own counter-consciousness, and eventually its own counterculture. This counterculture comprises a new set of beliefs and a new style of life that is intended or hoped to challenge and eventually expose the inadequacy of the prevailing culture. Only when the ideological core of the prevailing culture is removed and replaced by a new ideological core can lasting and effective change occur. Any change less than that involving the ideological core is superficial or transitory. In a nutshell, feminism challenges the prevailing status quo and develops a counter-ideology that questions the prevailing status quo and then attempts to modify it. Feminism advocates change rather than order. It criticises the regime in power and existing social and economic arrangements. It advances schemes for restructuring and reordering society. It generates political movements in the form of womens movements in order to gain enough power and influence to effect the changes it advocates. Feminism is an ideology of action for it motivates people to demand changes in their lifestyles and to modify the existing social, religious, political, and economic relations. It also mobilises its followers and adherents to preserve what they value.2 Ultimately, feminism is political and revolutionary. The revolutionary tinge of feminism has historically at times sanctioned the use of violence,3 which has not precluded bloodshed. Gender thinking adopts this feminist stance, with little or no modification or retouching and with few or no disclaimers, so that it is conventional gender thinking to posit men as the perpetrators of female-oppression and discrimination in a society which is viewed as male-dominated, a society in which this sad scenario is ingrained in the fabric of the prevailing political regimes, and where the social, religious, political and economic relations and structures are arranged so as to embrace and promote inequality between men and women. The result is that the gender paradigm centrally addresses the problems of equality and liberty rights, more or less zeroing on a variant of welfare-state ideology. Gender thinkers see no need to take caution in distinguishing gender-ism from feminism. Feminism is taken for granted as the appropriate seed and vehicle of gender. In contemporary literary circles, the philosophical presuppositions of gender thinking and practice are not put to a litmus test because testing gender implies testing feminism, which, in any case, has withstood many a crucial test as evidenced by its record of persistence and triumph especially in Europe, Great Britain, America, Canada, and Australia. This being the case, the cogency of popular gender-isms can only be tested, or critiqued, against cross-cultural objectivity. This paper argues that the lack of demarcation between gender and feminism leads to confusion of western feminism with gender. By grounding itself in feminist ideology, gender inherits most of the weaknesses and shortfalls of western feminism. Gender finds its impetus and modes of expression in western feminism. Therefore, Africa needs to rethink a specific gender, which is appropriate to the African situation in this new millennium. Conceptual analysis of gender and feminism becomes a problem for a start because there is a plethora of such offers on the contemporary intellectual and political scenes. Below, only extant literature is reviewed on the question of gender and feminism in Malawi and elsewhere in Africa. In the case of Malawi, only a few representative papers are considered. Any other contributions outside these papers are nonetheless worthwhile but very likely to be implicitly implicated and/or critiqued in one or more of the representative papers. The choice of the papers is free and deliberate: social philosophy, education, religion, and environment, i.e., unarguably, some of the hottest beds of gender debates and activism. At this juncture, it should be appreciated that African intellectuals have for some time tried to conceptualise gender and feminism in their own situation. As far as philosophical writing is concerned in Malawi, Hermes Chidammodzi was 116 Where is the Foundation of African Gender? the first to notice and then critique this confusion between gender and feminism in the mid-nineties. Feminism is a consecration of the moral and intellectual and hence universal values of equality purportedly denied of women by the dominance of males over women and the sacrosanct ideologies developed in society to legitimatise and perpetuate male-dominance. Thus conceived, feminism as a western reactionary and sacrosanct ideology is not African in origin and development so that the contemporary gender idiom is not a full theoretical framework and expression of the paradigm of African gender. This construing of gender invokes three important thoughts: (1) Gender does not mean and is not women. (2) Gender emerges in a specific situation depicting inegalitarianism embedded in social structures where one sex (male or female) is on the losing side. (3) Gender is a social construct of sets of behaviours, dispositions, ideas, beliefs, values, and attitudes of man and woman. (4) Gender has a strong materialistic tendency, for it grounds womens qualities or modes of action in womens daily li ves in a spatio-temporal-specific resource base presumably conditioned by a sexual division of labour. Insofar as it is situationally embedded in the societys power relations, gender is a reaction to constructed, i.e. real or imagined, male- dominance and female subordination. Gender thus conceived becomes an outgrowth from feminism. 28 The history of feminism is marked by two goals: equality and rights. Pioneer American feminists like Susan Anthony and Elizabeth Stanton had to battle it out with men for their right to vote as equals with men by dint of creation. In the days of old, liberalism provided the initial momentum toward the release of women from social bondage. To womens disappointment, many a revolution (like the American Revolution in 1776 and the French Revolution in 1789) and nationalism did not specifically rescue them from subjugation by men. Social inequalities continued to prevail in the new and independent states. Britain, America and the Continent of Europe clearly illustrate the sluggish pace of women liberation progress; Switzerland is the last European democracy to grant women suffrage in 1971. Despite the universality of female subordination and male domination, the African womans situation is bound to make her suspicious of western feminist discourse, which is mostly the experience of the twentieth century middle-class woman in an industrial sexual division of labour. For the western woman of that era it was only natural for her to cry for balance of power. The feminist fight was a fight for power. She made lots of gains; her emancipatory efforts bore her more equality with men, more rights, and easier access to resources, increase in opportunities or incentives, especially in the public sphere. The yardstick was always her more privileged male counterpart in the already privileged middle-class. In labour, this historicity of western feminism has led to the misconception that women were solely fighting for the soft or top jobs such as company executive, manager, prime minister, parliamentarian, physician, news editor, professor, pilot; surprisingly, the women never zealously fought for rough jobs such as undertaker, trench-digger, dockyard worker, heavy industrial worker, soldier,30 or night-guards. In its counter-critique, western feminism penetrated the rough jobs; eventually, the west saw more women engineers, women soldiers, and policewomen, thus virtually transforming western society into a unisex club. In the inter-war period, and much more vehemently after W.W.II, feminist thinkers zeroed on marriage as the champion of female subordination, and so they strongly argued that the demolition of the marriage institution would automatically lead to total women liberation. It was then a normal spectacle for a woman feminist to be decidedly non-married, although she could be attached and have children. Domesticity, child rearing, or whatever family life stands for, was looked upon as an impediment to women involvement and participation in public life, especially to public employment. The feminist propaganda so narrowly construed was reduced to a feminist fight for space and time in the public spheres of life especially the workplace, which was supposed as a predominantly male ter ritory. Two concepts dominated and still dominate the western conceptual framework. Western gender categories dismally fail to provide a gender conceptual framework for the African woman. For instance, the category of power cannot be used to conceptualise gender in Africa. To argue that a certain normative concept like power has a gender meaning is to claim that its social usage, at least in part, is not what it ought to be for reasons that have to do with gender To claim further that the usage does not command universality and objectivity, due to considerations of differing hermeneutics, i.e. interpretation as grounded in historicity and context is not to advocate gender scepticism. Although the empirical realities of women world-wide are different, this paper argues for the abandonment of gender exclusivity in the face of equally competing, urgent and appealing discourses of, say, ethnicity, racism, and class. In western traditional masculinist literature, power is viewed as repressive, poured from a leviathan above to his subjects below. The subjects are said to need the powerful leviathan because without him, they lack security, peace and well-being. In that western literary world, power is evidently and firmly associated with the male and masculinity, like virility, thus evoking the physicality of power. The correlate of man, woman, is therefore powerless. So when feminists wrote about power over our bodies and power of our lives they were using the very same concept of power, which pervaded traditional masculinist discourses on power. They affirmed the male conceptualisation of power rather than providing an alternative. It comes to us as no surprise that contemporary gender thinkers mimic the same masculinist notion of power in theorising gender. They are not wary of historical, social and political situation of knowledge-claims.32 Trapped in their own ideological cocoon, the western feminist women still think that western rationality is the only rationality; that western science is superior to other forms of rationality (if any), so that in regard to, say, family planning strategy, African women have to be helped by their more scientific counterparts from the west. African women, so claim the western women, need to be conscientised because it is feared that the African women have internalised the oppression or suffering and therefore are in desperate need of awareness campaigns by women animators from the west. The western feminists already fall prey to the yet another ideology of dominance they vehemently fight in their own backyard. Western feminists are totally oblivious to the reality of subject-object relations in research; the reality the helper and the helped are equals as they each experience the other from the viewpoint of their own situations and background knowledge and cultures. Each one (the helper and the helped) is the object of experience of the other so that objectivity is somehow tainted with subjectivity. 31 Oshadi Mangena argues likewise that if one is attentive to differences of ethnic origin, sexual orientation and class, the notion of gender disintegrates into fragments and cannot anymore be employed as a useful category. See K. Lennon and M. Witford, Knowing the difference: feminist perspectives in epistemology, London: Routeldge and Kegan Paul, 1994, pp. 275-282. 32 Annette Fitzsimons and Susan Strickland, Ibid. pp. 124; 265. 129 Nordic Journal of African Studies That the helper enjoys the exclusive right to the objectification of knowledge of the Other is an ingrained feature of western cross-cultural research, after all the helper has scientific skills or rational advantage over the helped, and this ontological arrangement make the helped redundant in the objectification of knowledge of the Other. The only danger though is that the consequent helpers knowledge is partial or fragmentary. The implication is that western feminists cannot emancipate the supposedly un-conscientised African women. 2.2.2 Woman Just as the concept of human, as narrowly presented in western literature, fails to command objectivity, the same literature fails to define woman. Woman is amenable to many different things; it is shrouded by ambiguities about its ontological status. It can evoke intrinsic characteristics, like caring and love, but this smacks of essentialism, which does not have many adherents in gender mainstreams. It can also evoke familial relationships as the non-male member. Both of these evocations partially conceive woman for they are normative since they are descriptive of a set of social facts or relations. As such, woman has no characterizable content and hence the challenge from postmodernist thought that woman is not descriptively adequate since, it is observed, woman is cross-culturally different. According to postmodernists, woman imposes unity over empirical reality.33 Postmodernism rejects the Enlightenment and the humanist presumptions of wonders of reason. The Enlightenment is rejected because of its veneration of masculine reason at the expense of sensuality; humanism is rejected because of its appeals to universal subjectivity or the human condition. Instead of seeking sameness postmodernism celebrates difference, partiality and multiplicity. It detests the search for coherence and hankering after the right (or Platonic or Kantian) solution. Postmodernist feminism equally opposes a hermeneutic parochialism of the present over the past or vice versaof searching for a single given goal, a single representation of reality. This new brand of feminism transcends the historicist recognition of the inevitable peculiarity and contextuality of human thought and practice and hence it advocates the continuity of dialogue between interlocutors, between text and interpreter, and between subject and object, with no advantage, marked goal or reality. This postmodernist re-orientation of feminism is a deliberate step away from essentialism and universalism: marginalisation and exclusion of the Other.34 It puts emphasis on particularity and multiplicity with due attention to difference, diversity and locale. But postmodernists also impose a tough demand on gender thinkers: why should the absence of facts for 33 See Alessandra Tanesini, Ibid. pp. 211-212. 34 See Susan Strickland, Ibid. pp. 266-7. 130 Where is the Foundation of African Gender? description of woman precludes the claim for the notion of woman, even where the possession of the notion may not warrant the description or analysis of the same? Even the points of convergence of feminism and postmodernism are not adequate grounds for their formulation of their purported common aims because their concept-lingualities are different. For example, their meanings of a concept like difference are different. In postmodernism, difference is acknowledged as typical of human experience worldwide; it is at the same time evaded as a threat to dominant perspectives of understanding or interpreting reality. It is consistent within postmodernism to demonstrate that woman was all along acknowledged as different but was included in universal humanity in name only by the dominating men. Feminists believe that the dominant ideology in world history is the root cause of the subjection of women by men. In Rousseaus language of right, the emancipation of western woman, albeit noticeably incomplete as we enter the third millennium, began as late as mid nineteenth century. However, feminism does not argue for the mere acknowledgement of difference; womens experience and perspectives should be noticed and heard along with dominant male experience and perspectives. Feminists complain bitterly that that the dominant perspectives are exclusive of women because they are ideological and hence false, since they are interested and distorted. Feminists are not content with their inclusion in or numerical addition to universal humanity as read in liberal or Marxist theories. Whereas postmodernism stops at the recognition of difference, feminism posits difference as a challenge, a paradigm of its critical dialogue with its situation, past, present and future. The concept woman is thrown into serious doubt because the notion of gender itself is slowly moulding due to its exclusiveness. What is being advocated instead of gender is a multiplicity of identities; for instance, if one widens ones horizon, one cannot fail to realise that differences of ethnic origin and class, sexual orientation (gays and lesbians), should be priority items on the liberation agenda. In spite of its usefulness in certain emancipatory projects, woman as a gender category stands to question now because it has dawned on contemporary gender thinkers that woman is essentially embedded in misogynist literature and that it is conducive to, and promotes, exclusionary practices. In short, a feminist survey of western languages shows that the meaning of some words, such as power, woman, human, reason, depicts gender bias against women; the words are not universal. The concept-lingual sources of western rightist discourses, like feminism, are liberalism or Marxism in their vicious attack of their respective archrivals, authoritarianism, and capitalism. Ironically, Karl Marx did not directly address the specific situation of women. He presumed that his communism would provide liberation for women just as it would for all the exploited masses and underprivileged minorities, male and female. 131 Nordic Journal of African Studies Friedrich Engels (Marxs lifetime friend, economic guardian, co-author, and Marxs editor) also narrowly attributed women subjugation to property relationships of the conjugal family only in capitalist societies; he remained mute on the reality of their enslavement in non-capitalist societies including communism and matriarchal societies. Marxism and capitalism cannot be plausible concept-lingual sources for the gender movement in the new millennium since both of them are ideologies of conflict: they pit man against man; the state exploits the proletariat-worker in the former, whereas the capitalist boss exploits the labourer in the latter. The importance of authentic concepts of gender needs to be stressed. More importantly, the crucial concept of power needs to be unambiguously stipulated in contemporary gender thought and practice. The feminism of the 1970s and 1980s correctly revealed that the concepts that are presented to us as universal and trans-historically valid actually embody male biases. For example, normative concepts such as reason, science and knowledge fail to pass the gender universalisation test, so to say. Even if these normative concepts embody ideals and express values, they nonetheless prescribe and evaluate behaviour in male-perspectives and so the values they express and ideals they embody are far from universal. Normative concepts function as descriptions of the endorsements of a specific society, and are faithful to past usage. Hence the complaint that feminism has taken the experience, i.e. marginalisation, of white middle class women to be representative of all women. The glaring weakness of these normative concepts is that they leave little or no room for disagreement or difference within a situation like a community. Conformity is the order of the day since they are treated as truth-conditions, instead of being emendations of current thought and action. These contemporary feminists fear that these values and ideals are codifications of norms regulating masculinity, where the womans normal is locus of the domesticity of the family, i.e. the private sphere of life. What current gender thought needs is the evolution of ongoing social practice. It should engage in evaluation of these concepts and influence the evolution of social practice in regard to concept-usage. 3. GENDER AND FEMINISM: THE AFRICAN SCENARIO The argument that African women cannot identify with doctrinaire western feminism comes with cogent force because the knowledge and experience of African women have been ignored or marginalised by a feminism that reflects only the perspectives of white western middle-class women; that it indulges in false universalism and lacks critical awareness of its situation are simple inferences drawn from the argument. Its conception of woman remains problematic and therefore vacuous because its woman is intended to deny self-evident differences between woman and woman in situation and experience, 132 Where is the Foundation of African Gender? privilege and power. It is apologetic of the peculiarities of woman since it misconceives them as functional and not as formal differences (from man). As a result, its content and purpose are not based on actual commonalties between women but on the experience and interests of some women who have the position and ability to impose upon other women their own idiosyncrasies, terms and definitions, i.e. what they mean for themselves and others. For instance, when western feminism seeks to balance or reverse the social scales, it employs conceptual polarities such as nature-culture, strong-weak, reason-intuition, public-private, male-female-neuter sexual division of labour. To explain the position of women, it says women are closer to nature; they are more intuitive; they are more private or secretive, etc, not knowing that it simply endorses masculinist (and hence exploitable) viewpoints about woman. Indeed feminism lacks a critical awareness of its situation. Feminism is not in dialogue with its context, past and present, and therefore cannot be used to forge emendations to any society, which cries for transformation of social relations. Feminism is engaged in a monologue, which mistakes its own ventriloquism for effectiveness since it is falsely generalising and insufficiently attentive to historical and cultural diversity. Another unwelcome feature of western feminism is that, although it borrows critical tools from other emancipatory theories like Reformation, liberalism and Marxism, it does not put itself forward to challenging other forms of subordination like slavery, colonialism, racism, and their accompanying prejudices and complexes, which affect women as well. Its exclusiveness to the western middle-class womans experience undermines its universality and objectivity, and therefore puts to serious doubt its relevance to the African woman of the same era.35 Worse still, its silence could easily be interpreted as its assent to slavery, colonialism and racism, experiences that western middle-class men caused on both African women and men. Though not unique, the situation of the African feminist and that of the Western feminist would not replicate. An African woman generally finds herself in a social setting where power might not be the paradigm of interpersonal life. Jobs are just as hard to get for a female as they are for her male counterpart. In a marital situation, for example, she may dispense with the battle of balancing it out with her allegedly dominant male partner in terms of sexual division of labour, involving child-care and domestic chores due to the scenario of dependency, a creation of the extended family. Dependants fill in as auxiliary or surrogate mothers or fathers and as unofficial maids or cooks, etc. Even if dependants were not around, hiring domestic staff would be more affordable in her society than it would be in the west. As is well known, in the west, it is almost impossible to hire domestic staff. 3.1 TRADITION VERSUS MODERNITY: SOCIO-POLITICS IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICA Transformation is a rare occurrence in Africa. Perhaps devolution, rather than evolution or revolution, is the modus operandi for social transformation in Africa. The interface of the past and the present may not be conducive to the development of radical gender even among urban or elite women. Past attitudes and values tend to phase out far too slowly under the weight of new attitudes and values. The usual conceptualisation of woman both among the rural and urban folk might have more conservative undertones than radical gender theorists wish. In Malawi, for instance, even after the legal repeal of the indecent dress code, the woman in trousers or mini-skirt risks categorisation as a champion or promoter of moral turpitude. The continuing scenario of stripping off mini-skirted city women by vendors is testimonial enough of these slow-dying conservative undertones even in the urban or modernised areas of Malawi. Radical gender might be undaunted by this current negative public recepti on of trousers and mini-skirts in Malawi, dismissing it as a primary reaction of a bunch of male savages. Time alone will heal this negative attitude; gender activists console themselves. At this stage though, these attitudes should be of great concern because it is not unusual for radical gender women lobbyists to experience opposition and disapproval from fellow women. Another reality that might prevent replication of western gender in Africa is the social history of Africa. It is difficult to identify the dominant ideology for African societies outside Africas recent experience of slave trade, colonialism, and nationalism. However, anthropology and archaeology, which pretend to dig deeper into Africas past, and re-construct the Antique Africa antedating the three recent experiences of Africa, reveal to us that there are matrilineal and patrilineal societies in Africa. In the patrilineal societies, for example, Ngoni, Tumbuka, Sena, Ngonde in Malawi, males are dominant. However, broadly speaking, in matrilineal societies women are more powerful than men, an issue that is accentuated by the husbands settling in their wives villages upon marriage. One would expect that in a setting where land is the most valuable property, due to reliance on agriculture, a landowner would command a lot of power and influence. Husbands, as co-opted landowners, will in principle and practice have less power and influence than their wives. Therefore, if the western genders power paradigm is anything to go by, the matrilineal society depicts a reversal of the western gender model. In Malawi, Chewa, Yao, Manganja and Lomwe societies are largely matrilineal in principle. The Tonga of the northern shore of Lake Malawi can be included in gender-wise peculiar ethnic groups although the Tonga are bi-lineal. In these ethnic groups, one must distinguish the formal from informal power structures and modes of social organisation; in the formal power setting, that is the traditional chieftaincy, chiefs hold only symbolic power since what they execute in public is largely the consensus, or the communis sensus, of the ruling 134 Where is the Foundation of African Gender? Unlike feminist scholarship in the West, feminist theory and scholarship in Africa have formed neither a neatly delineated field, nor one firmly rooted in theoretically-inflected politics. With the consolidation of Western feminisms between 1960 and the early 1980s and the growth of the so-called second wave, clear political and intellectual traditions were formed around radical, liberal and Marxist/socialist feminisms. Subsequent feminisms drew on or deviated from these positions to engage increasingly with theories and politics emerging in the nineties. African theories and womens movements have taken very different paths. In certain ways, African theories and womens movements have been closely linked to politics, although this politic